A History of Korea - Part 3

By Michael Downey

When the first Korean kingdom, Old Joseon, fell to the Chinese Han Empire in 108 BCE, it looked like China would be able to exercise its hegemony for a long time to come. But a variety of native Koreans had something different to say about that.

By the end of the BCE era, tribal confederations were forming from north to south on the peninsula. For me, it was kind of like the Old West—no sheriff or marshal to take your troubles to. It was every man, village, and tribe for themselves. The strongest would survive and expand, and usually, in a vicious fight, having someone at your back was a major advantage. Out of this basic need, confederations began to form, break up, and reform.

These included remnants of older peoples traversing the territory known as Manchuria. The Yemaek people seemed to be made up of the Ye—tiger people—and the Maek—bear people. Later, they were said to constitute the people of Old Joseon. When Old Joseon fell, the survivors were widely scattered and were incorporated into Buyeo. The Buyeo, in turn, were considered to be the ancestors of Goguryeo and Baekje, two of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. The Goguryeo, Baekje, Buyeo, and Gaya are all believed to have originated from the Yemaek tribes. The Yemaek culture is seen as ancestral to modern Korean culture.

Far to the north, the horsemen of the Goguryeo tribe, based on their military prowess, began to reunite the remnants of Old Joseon. Blending Yemaek people with Buyeo leadership and strongly influenced by the Chinese commanderies, Goguryeo developed into a kingdom. As aggressive mounted warriors, they expanded control over territory in northeast China, northern and southern Korea, and as far north as Russia. China claims Goguryeo as a minority nation of Greater China. Koreans, of course, know that Goguryeo was one of the foundational Three Kingdoms of Korea.

Meanwhile, in the southernmost extents of the peninsula, other confederations began to form with connections to Goguryeo. Samhan was the confederation of three Han tribes: Byeonhan, Jinhan, and Mahan. The Samhan, a loose confederation of walled-town states, each appeared to have a ruling elite whose power mixed politics and shamanism. Although each state had its own ruler, there’s no evidence of systematic succession. The name of the poorly understood Jin state continued to be used in the name of the Jinhan confederacy and in “Byeonjin,” an alternate term for Byeonhan. In addition, for some time, the leader of Mahan continued to call himself the King of Jin, asserting nominal overlordship over all the Samhan confederations.

Mahan Confederacy

Mahan was a loose confederacy of chiefdoms that existed from around the first century BCE to the third century CE in the southern Korean peninsula, mainly in the Chungcheong Province. Arising out of the confluence of Gojoseon/Old Joseon migration and the Jin federation, Mahan was one of the Samhan (or "Three Hans"), along with Byeonhan and Jinhan. Baekje began as a member statelet but later overtook all of Mahan and became one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. The people who migrated from the fallen Gojoseon were Ye-Maek—related by blood and language to the Goguryeo people. Migration from Gojoseon greatly influenced this region and the Samhan confederations. Known as the Proto–Three Kingdoms, they played a large part in forming the people and nations of the Three Kingdoms period.

All three future kingdoms began in similar circumstances and followed similar paths. They started as warlike tribes that secured their places on the peninsula and expanded through conquest and primitive diplomacy. Founding dates are difficult to pin down, but their rise to nationhood began after the fall of Old Joseon in 108 BCE. Goguryeo is said to have been founded sometime between 200 BCE and 37 BCE by Jumong (also known as Chumo or King Dongmyeong), a leader of one of the Buyeo tribes. Originating in northern Manchuria, Buyeo was associated with the Yemaek people, who were instrumental in founding Old Joseon, Goguryeo, and Baekje. The founding of Goguryeo is shrouded in overlapping and conflicting myths. At best, the TV drama proclaims Jumong to be the legendary founder of Goguryeo. His father was Hae Mosu, a divine being said to have descended from heaven, and his mother was Lady Yuhwa, a mortal woman who fell in love with him. Jumong was raised by King Geumwa of Buyeo after his mother sought refuge there.

What we can say for sure is that Goguryeo warriors rode and fought hard. They expanded their kingdom into what is now Russia, most of Manchuria in China, North Korea, and much of Korea down to and below the Han River. They valiantly contested control of the Korean peninsula until their defeat by the Tang dynasty of China, allied with Silla, in 668 CE.

Out of royal family politics arose another of the Three Kingdoms: Baekje. Jumong, the founder of Goguryeo, had three sons. The eldest he left in Buyeo when he departed to found the new kingdom. In Goguryeo, he sired two more sons with a second wife, Soseono. When he brought his eldest son down from Buyeo and declared him heir, Soseono decided to flee with her two sons and start a new nation. Onjo, the second son of Jumong, established the new nation and ruled as its first king. Initially called “Tens of Counties” or “Vassals,” it was later changed to “Baekje”—“Hundreds of Counties” or “Vassals.” He located the capital in the Han River basin at Wiryeseong, or present-day Hanam, just southeast of Seoul. He built a fortress called Wiryeseongsan and worshipped on a nearby mountain, setting up an altar and calling it Kamdansan (감단산).

I’ve climbed that mountain many times and looked out over the Han River and the city of Seoul. The ruins of Wiryeseongsan were also a place for picnicking and hiking. I enjoyed living in a place where I could walk among history.

All Photos credit: MIchael Downey

With the mayor of Hanam, South Korea